The fragility of citizenship: New insights into global trends

Naturalisation has long been considered a reliable method for securing the right to reside in a country, but recent findings indicate that this belief is becoming increasingly precarious. The inaugural Global State of Citizenship report, produced by the Global Citizenship Observatory (GLOBALCIT) at the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence, evaluates citizenship laws across 191 nations as of 2024.

The report highlights a troubling trend: in response to escalating armed conflicts and terrorism, many nations have enacted laws permitting the withdrawal of citizenship on national security grounds. Over one-third of countries, including numerous European states, now reserve the right to revoke citizenship if a person's actions are deemed disloyal or a threat to national security.

This shift is closely aligned with heightened security measures since the September 11 attacks in 2001. From 2000 to 2020, 18 European countries implemented policies allowing for the deprivation of citizenship based on national security concerns—an approach that was virtually nonexistent prior to 2001.

Recent examples include the Swedish government's inquiry into revoking citizenship from individuals considered security risks. Similarly, Germany's coalition parties have debated this option for individuals associated with terrorism or extremist ideologies. Hungary has also amended its constitution to permit temporary suspension of citizenship for national security reasons.

Mechanisms for citizenship revocation

The report identifies four primary methods through which citizenship can be revoked on security grounds. Approximately 80% of countries have legislation addressing at least one of these scenarios. In 132 nations, including two-thirds of European states, citizenship can be revoked due to actions such as treason, espionage, or terrorism. Notable countries with such provisions include Belgium, France, Germany, and the UK.

Conversely, 89 countries limit these rules to individuals who obtained citizenship through naturalisation, excluding those who are citizens by birth. Criminal offenses can also lead to citizenship revocation, with rules in place in 79 countries, albeit sparingly in Europe.

Additional avenues for citizenship loss include serving in foreign armies—applicable in 70 countries—and providing non-military services to another state, affecting 75 nations.

Disparities in citizenship security

Luuk van der Baaren, a co-author of the report, emphasized the rising concerns regarding the security of citizenship as a legal status. The data indicates that many citizenship stripping provisions disproportionately target certain groups, particularly naturalised citizens, thereby creating a scenario where citizens by birth enjoy more robust legal protections.

Loss of citizenship can have far-reaching consequences, not only on individuals but also on their dependents, as 40% of countries extend citizenship loss to children of those affected.

Alternative pathways to citizenship loss

The report outlines various other ways individuals may unintentionally lose their citizenship, often due to fraudulent acquisition, which is addressed in 157 countries. Additionally, 156 nations have regulations regarding voluntary renunciation of citizenship, and 56 countries may revoke citizenship if an individual acquires another nationality, while 55 countries may do so simply for residing abroad.

Despite the Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserting that everyone has the right to a nationality, millions remain stateless due to unrecognized citizenship. Furthermore, 35 countries hinder individuals from renouncing their citizenship, complicating the situation further.

Unequal access to citizenship

The report also assesses the pathways to acquiring citizenship, revealing significant disparities. Common requirements include knowledge assessments, but less frequently, criteria such as economic self-sufficiency and language proficiency are mandated. Residency requirements tend to be more inclusive in the Americas and Western Europe, whereas some nations impose lengthy waiting periods for citizenship—up to 40 years in Equatorial Guinea.